Education For All In Cambodia Education Essay

In nowadays universe matter, the provinces are seeking to vie the power with each other non merely by the military capableness like in the past clip, but they are most likely to vie in the economic development. Meanwhile the economic development of a state is chiefly contributed by many factors such as human resources, capital resources, engineering, and the authorities policyaˆÂ ¦etc. Human resources is the of import standards in the development of a state since engineering and authorities policy come from the human resourcea†Ã‹â€  educated people. Therefore, it means that instruction is really indispensable for the state development. Anyways, for a freshly become developing state such as Cambodia, better instruction is a critical sector for the authorities to accomplish in order to bring forth human resources for develop the state. The organisations such as, UNICEF, UNESCO, and the MDG has a strong relationship with the instruction for all in Cambodia. Before explicating the relation between those organisations and the instruction in Cambodia, we should hold a glimpse on the history of instruction. The traditional instruction in Cambodia was derived from local Wat ( pagoda ) that pupils were taught by bonzes. All pupils were male childs while misss were non allow traveling to Wat School. Many Wat Schools was besides called Pali schools that provided three old ages of simple instruction that pupils could take entryway into the Buddhist lycees and go on to Buddhist University in Phnom Penh. Many topics such as Pali of Buddhist and Khmer philosophy, Kampuchean history, geographics, scientific discipline, civics, , hygiene, mathematics and agribusiness were taught in the school ( instruction in Cambodia ) . Until 1863, when Gallic forced to protectorate Cambodia, owed to the fiscal and managerial grounds made French paid less attending to the reforming of instruction system in Cambodia while the program was made without any actions wer e taken. Under the Gallic associated state, Khmers were compelled to analyze in neighbouring states or in France, but in 1944 there was still merely one Khmer applied scientist in whole state. In add-on to that, because of the revenue enhancement policy made the people preferred their kids to remain at place and gain money to provide for their household populating instead than allowed their kids to travel to school to acquire cognition. On contrary, the station independency period was a aureate epoch of instruction development in Cambodia ; meanwhile, the instruction system was spread widely. King Sihanouk raised the profile of instruction by doing attending compulsory for the immature and actuating parents to direct their older kids to school every bit good. Furthermore, the King besides started a procedure of ‘Cambodianisation ‘ of the educational system that changed the linguistic communication of direction, the construction of classs and school text editions ( Berkvens, 2009 ) . In 1970, Cambodia universities have about 9,000 pupils that the Royal University of Phnom Penh hold the largest figure of studentsa†Ã‹â€  4,570 male and more than 730 female pupils in eight sections such as: scientific discipline and engineering, commercial scientific discipline, jurisprudence and economic sciences, letters and humanistic disciplines, pharmaceutics, medical specialty, teacher preparation, and higher ins tructor preparation ( instruction in Cambodia ) . Because of the spread of instruction, more people graduated, take to new job which is unemployment since the calibrated people are more than the needed occupation ( Berkvens, 2009 ) . Unfortunately, after the coming of the Khmer Rouge government on April 17th, 1975 Pol Pot wholly changed the instruction system in Cambodia that they abandoned the schoolroom, books, and most of the educated people were killed. One Khmer Rouge cell said: â€Å" Under our system, we do n't necessitate to direct our immature people to school. The farm is our school. The land is our paper. The Big Dipper is our pen. We will compose by plowing † ( Berkvens, 2009 ) . After Pol Pot government there are merely 5000 of 20000 instructors ( instruction in Cambodia ) . After Pol Pot government collapsed, there was another dark age of Cambodia under the Vietnamese business. In the early 1980s ; nevertheless, the instruction system in Cambodia improved somewhat that primary and secondary instruction plans were re-opened, but merely to pupils those who can afford to the school fee while the lesson was taught in veitnamese ( Sheldon ) . After 30 old ages of reforming the state, the Kampuchean authorities has been seeking to give the population higher instruction system as we can see below about the changing in the instruction system, the consequence of reforming, and the farther reforming instruction policy. First, harmonizing to the UNESCO study, the instruction system in Cambodia is divided into 5 stages: pre-primary instruction, primary instruction ( grade 1-6 ) , lower secondary instruction ( grade7-9 ) , upper secondary instruction ( grade 10-12 ) , and higher instruction. Six old ages of primary instruction and three old ages of lower secondary instruction make up the state ‘s basic instruction proviso. After finishing upper secondary instruction, pupils can either enter vocational preparation ( which lasts for one to three old ages depending on the programmes ) or universities ( which offer biennial associate grade programmes, four-year unmarried man ‘s degree programmes, and seven-year medical pr ogrammes ) . The Non-formal Education plan plays an of import function in supplying literacy and life accomplishment programmes, every bit good as short-run vocational preparation to school dropouts and grownups ( Haddad, 2008 ) . Second, the Education Strategic Plan ( ESP ) and the Education Sector Support Program ( ESSP ) 2006-2010 of the Ministry of Education Youth and Sport have been developed to react to the rectangular scheme of the authorities to accomplish the ends of the national program for Education for All ( EFA ) and Kampuchean Millennium Development Goals ( CMDG ) . After pattern the program, there has been an increased entree to instruction services with equity in all instruction establishments and all school degrees. The pupils ‘ registration in primary schools is stable while there has been a singular addition in secondary school degree ( Moeys, 2009 ) . Furthermore, the wide reform in instruction has increased primary school with the registration of rural fem ale pupils, handicapped people, and autochthonal people. In add-on to that, the instructor public presentation has besides increased with many non-formal plans were introduced. Furthermore, the quality of instruction has besides improved by new learning accomplishments, trial system, and the criterion of schools ( moeys ) . Third, even though there is the development in the instruction system compare to the yesteryear, the instruction in Cambodia has non fulfilled the demand to develop the state yet ; hence, the Ministry of Education Youth and Sport did present to strategic program in reforming the instruction in Cambodia which is Education for all National Plan 2003-2015. The National Plan of Education for All spells out comprehensive proficient and fiscal programs concentrating on ( 1 ) gender antiphonal schemes, ( 2 ) early childhood attention and development, ( 3 ) formal basic instruction, and ( 4 ) non-formal instruction and grownup literacy. The program focuses on both quanti ty enlargement and quality/relevance of the programmes ( Lah, 2002 ) . Furthermore, the schemes include scholarship strategies for the rural hapless to increase the transitional rate from primary to take down secondary ; capacity-building of both learning and non-teaching staff through pre-service and in-service preparation, and monitoring of larning results ( Haddad, 2008 ) . Unlike many other developing states in Southeast Asia, Cambodia has been through many epochs and governments that make the state experienced the prosperity and decline in the instruction systema†Ã‹â€  the loss of human resources ( chet, 2006 ) . However, through the period of reforming and developing the state after recovered from the war, societal and political instability, Cambodia now is traveling toward the higher instruction system every bit good as the economic development. On the other manus, the wholly self-reforming for the state that has merely recovered from war as Cambodia is impossible since there is the deficiency of human resources, fiscal support every bit good as scheme. Therefore, in term of developing the state, Cambodia needs the aid from other people. As a consequence, there are besides 3 noteworthy histrions who involved in reforming the instruction system such as: UNESCO, UNICEF, and the MDGs. First of all, UNESCO ( United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization ) was established on 16 November 1945. It stated the aims to advance peace and security through international cooperation on instruction, scientific discipline, and civilization in order to foster cosmopolitan regard for justness, the regulation of jurisprudence, and the human rights along with cardinal freedoms proclaimed in the UN Charter. In term of instruction, UNESCO seeks to â€Å" supply educational chances and offer proficient aids to give the opportunity of having the equal instruction for all people ; furthermore, UNESCO besides help the member more easy to accomplish the ends by supervising the advancement through the submitting of one-year Global Monitoring Report which show the accomplishments of states and the international community towards the six Educations for All ends † ( UNESCO ) . The UNESCO has being played really of import for Cambodia since 1951 when Cambodia joined this organisation. Particularly, in instruction, UNESCO has provided comprehensive coordination and proficient aid to the MoEYS for the constitution of six relevant EFA proficient working groups. UNESCO has besides assisted MoEYS in the preparation and constitution of the national instruction policy and scheme to make out to broader populations at all degrees. And a figure of instruction policies were created such as: the National EFA Action Plan, the National Non-Formal Education Policy 2002, the National Plan of Action for Non-Formal Education 2008 and the Policy on Non-Formal Education Equivalency Programme 2008aˆÂ ¦etc. Furthermore, UNESCO assisted the MoEYS in explicating and circulating the Teacher Development Plan to instructors, instructor associations, and teacher preparation establishments, and recommending for the rights of instructors by supplying proficient aid and the information for learning. More, UNESCO has assisted with the Equivalency Programme Policy prepara tion and CLC enlargement and operation by bring forthing and circulating a Khmer version of CLC direction enchiridion to NFE policymakers and practicians, and besides by back uping Cambodians in assorted regional preparation workshops ( UNESCO, 2010 ) . Second, UNICEF ( United Nation International Children ‘s Emergency Fund ) besides helps in determining the instruction quality in Cambodia. UNICEF was created on December 11, 1946 in order to provide exigency nutrient and health care to kids in states that had affected by World War II. UNICEF besides seeks for the security and development for kids and female parents in developing states. Particularly, UNICEF ‘s plans emphasize developing community-level services to better the kids good being. Therefore, UNICEF was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1965 and the Prince of Asturias Award of Concord in 2006. For instruction, UNICEF ‘s plant is to â€Å" accomplish equal chance for every kids around the universe to acquire the instruction, distribute of the Essential Learning Package, set the criterions of instruction system, empower adult females through misss ‘ instruction and gender equality, supply exigencies and post-crisis instruction that measure rapidly adv ance better instruction by offer the self-learning plan, grant critical equipments and supplies for the basic needs to seek instruction, and enhance quality in primary and secondary instruction to assist better the school substructure every bit good as the instruction properity † ( UNICEF ) . Refering on the instruction in Cambodia, UNICEF started to collaborate the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport ( MoEYs ) since the late eightiess with the common aim to give the right of all Kampuchean kids for acquiring quality basic instruction. UNICEF has besides participated in puting national policies, constructing up Ministry capacities, bettering quality of primary instruction system, and easing instruction service to six of Cambodia ‘s 24 states. In add-on to that, UNICEF has accompanied with the MoEYs to lend to the instruction system in Cambodia through many factors such as, increased the outgo for develop the instruction system every bit good as the ministry capablenes s to better the quality of instruction. Furthermore, the UNESCO has besides helped to reenforce MoEYS ability to self-reform the system under SWAp ( the rules of a sector-wide attack ) by increasing assurance of internal staffs. The Ministry has implementing the ESP/ESSP 2006-2010 without external aids and with small proficient support from the givers. In add-on to that, the cooperation has win in addition the entree to primary school with narrow the gender spread that have increased the figure of registration of female pupil more than half in 2002. Furthermore, Education Law was drafted in 2003 by the MOEYs under the influence of the UNSECO. What is more, primary instruction quality has besides up surged both pupils and instructors ‘ quality through decentralized planning, direction and monitoring procedure ( Moeys, 2010 ) . Third, the last organisation that has meaning function in developing Cambodia instruction is UNDP under the Millennium Development Goals ( MDGs ) . The MDGs ‘ end is to cut down universe poorness by half by 2015. Many people can profit from the economic system development and some other people life can be saved from the harmful of the poorness. The MDGs are â€Å" time-bound and targeted end that has a set a limited for the ends to accomplish by covering with the utmost poorness such as: hungriness, income poorness, unequal shelter, disease and exclusion ; furthermore, it was created to promote instruction, gender equality and environmental sustainability base on the rights of every people to have wellness protection, shelter instruction, and security as guaranteed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the UN Millennium Declaration † ( UNDP ) . Furthermore, the MDGs attempt to advance the gender quality of primary and secondary educational system by 2005 and a t all degree by 2015 ( wikipedia ) . MDG has besides put a batch of attempt in developing instruction system in Cambodia as it has set many plans for the reforming instruction in the rural communities such as ; Highland Children ‘s Education Undertaking that established school in rural country by the communities human resources, Bending Bamboo with supplying the instruction for out of school misss and the bilingual linguistic communications category with the local instructor, Child Friendly Secondary Schools is a plan that the town pupils help the rural pupil for their surveies, and Provide proficient aid to the Provincial Office of Education in the three states that are retroflexing the theoretical account of bilingual instruction. Supply proficient advice to the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport ( UNDP policy, 2010 ) . Consequently, UNESCO, UNICEF, and the MDGs have done a batch of occupation in reforming and developing the instruction in Cambodia. As a consequence, Kampuchean new coevals have enjoyed the better instruction than in the yesteryear that most of kids have the opportunity to travel to school and seek for the cognition without the favoritism of the gender in both urban and rural country. And the developed in instruction system has besides contributed to the economic development, human wellbeing, and the better instruction as the ends of the UNESCO, UNICEF, every bit good as the MDGs. Likewise, we can cognize that all these organisations are the bureaus of the United Nations who plays the of import function in the administration of the planetary matter. The UN is the chief histrion in work outing the jobs in international matter such as human-centered, peace maintaining, peace edifice, developmentaˆÂ ¦etc. In term of Cambodia, after the war period the United Nations has sent its bur eau, for illustration: UNTAC, for peace maintaining in Cambodia. Besides, after guaranting the peace in the state the UN started to direct other bureaus such as ; UNESCO, UNICEF, and UNDP to make the development in the state that first precedence is reforming the instruction system. The function of the UN ‘s bureaus in Cambodia has shown the duty in one of the state in the universe as the action of the planetary administration for the development. In add-on to that, the actions are non merely taken in Cambodia as it is besides done in other portion of the universe such as: other states in Asia, Africa where the aid is needed. Therefore, the planetary administration mission is the complex and hard occupation to make since it required covering with all the job in planetary matter, and in Cambodia development is needed the aid from the UN ‘s bureaus such as: UNESCO, UNICEF, and MDGs for constructing the human resource by foremost better the instruction for all.

Book Review: I know Why The Caged Birds Sing

I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings Essay The book we recently read was called, â€Å"I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings†, written by Maya Angelou. This was a memoir about Maya Angelou’s life from age 3 to 17. The story was about Maya’s life living with her brother and grandmother who she called, â€Å"Momma† in Stamps, Arkansas. Then later in her life, she ended up living in St. Louis with her mother, San Francisco with her Father, and even living in a car at a junkyard. She was faced with confusion in her later years as a teen and became pregnant and had a little boy. Through the years, there were many people who had an impact on Marguerite’s life.I believe that Momma, Mrs. Flowers, and Mr. Freeman had a huge impact on Marguerite’s life whether it was positive or negative. One person that was very influential on Marguerite’s life was Momma. She had a positive effect on Marguerite’s life. Momma owned the only store in the black sectio n of Stamps which was the life center of the community with a friendly atmosphere and Momma served as a â€Å"community leader†. She was a strong woman who took care things and raised Bailey and Marguerite with strong morals. â€Å"But Momma convinced us that not only was cleanliness next to Godliness, dirtiness was the inventor of misery. (Angelou pg. 26/27) Momma cherished Christian values and had strict rules. â€Å"Since Momma told us that the less you say to whitefolks (or even powhitetrash) the better, Bailey and I would stand, solemn, quiet, in the displaced air. † (Angelou pg. 27) Momma didn’t let the powhitetrash run all over her when they were constantly mocking her and flashing themselves. She kept her dignity and she said a proper goodbye to them with a, â€Å"Bye, Miz Helen, bye, Miz Ruth, bye, Miz Eloise. † (Angelou pg. 31) Marguerite learned from Momma the ways to get away from the racial tension during this tough period.The 2nd person tha t had an influence on Marguerite’s life was Mrs. Flowers. She was the aristocrat of Black Stamps and was also one of Marguerite’s idols. Although Mrs. Flowers would never laugh, Marguerite loved when she would smile at her often. Mrs. Flowers made Marguerite feel special and took interest , â€Å"I was liked, and what a difference it made. I was respected not as Mrs. Henderson’s grandchild or Bailey’s sister but for just being Marguerite Johnson. †(Angelou pg. 98). Mrs. Flowers had a positive effect on Marguerite’s life and she tries to take Marguerite out of her silence by trying to teach her to have a voice.Marguerite respected that Mrs. Flowers encouraged her for her love of literature. Mrs. Flowers was an inspiration to Marguerite because she had dignity and was always true to herself. â€Å"It would be safe to say that she made me proud to be Negro, just by being herself. † (Angelou pg. 92) Marguerite learned from Mrs. Flowers th at it’s okay to have a voice and to speak and be heard. The 3rd person to have an affect on Marguerite’s life was Mr. Freeman. When Marguerite and Bailey left the Stamps they arrived to St. Louis where Mother lived. Mother’s boyfriend, Mr. Freeman, lived with them as well. While in St.Louis, Mr. Freeman raped and sexually molested Marguerite. It started out with a hug which deeply affected Marguerite. â€Å"He held me so softly that I wished he wouldn’t ever let me go. I felt at home. † (Angelou pg. 71) She was left in confusion because his physical touch made her feel wanted and before that she had never felt loved. Mr. Freeman gave her the wrong kind of love and Marguerite was confused about what love really was. He completely took advantage of Marguerite and her need for physical affection. â€Å"Then there was the pain. A breaking and entering when even the senses are town apart.The act of rape on an eight-year-old body is a matter of the need le giving because the camel can’t. The child gives, because the body can, and the mind of the violator cannot. † (pg. 76) He selfishly violated Marguerite’s purity. Later, Mr. Freeman was murdered and Marguerite felt guilty and responsible for his death. Mr. Freeman negatively affected Marguerite’s childhood. Maya kind of learned what love was and experienced a lot of emotions throughout this entire occurrence. I believe that Momma, Mrs. Flowers, and Mr. Freeman had a huge impact on Marguerite’s life whether it was positive or negative.Momma basically raised Marguerite and Bailey to the best of her ability regarding everything they do with Christian morals. Mrs. Flowers made Marguerite feel special and encouraged her to read out loud more and more. Mr. Freeman raped Marguerite at 8 years old and ever since then she felt guilty and conscious of the actions that took place. Throughout Maya Angelou’s life, the contact with those 3 characters mad e her learn many things about herself. She learned to open up and conquer many obstacles and by the end of the story Maya completely blossomed. MLA: Angelou, Maya. I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings.New York: Random House, 1969. Print. Angelou, Maya. â€Å"5. † I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings. New York: Random House, 1969. 26-27. Print. Angelou, Maya. â€Å"5. † I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings. New York: Random House, 1969. 27. Print. Angelou, Maya. â€Å"15. † I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings. New York: Random House, 1969. 92. Print. Angelou, Maya. â€Å"15. † I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings. New York: Random House, 1969. 98. Print. Angelou, Maya. â€Å"11. † I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings. New York: Random House, 1969. 72. Print. Angelou, Maya. â€Å"12. † I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings. New York: Random House, 1969. 76. Print.

Analysing the impact of Chinese FDI in Africa: A case study of Nigeria and Ghana.

INTRODUCTIONResearch ProblemThe proposed research aims to examine the effect of Chinese Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in Ghana and Nigeria in order to perform a cross-country analysis of the respective impacts of such investments in these countries. Ghana and Nigeria share a number of similar characteristics, which make for a useful comparison, as it is posited in this study that the similarities between the two African countries will allow for a cross-national comparison of the impacts of Chinese FDI in these countries. The results of the analysis will be used to make recommendations on how Ghana and Nigeria should make appropriate use of China’s FDI to achieve development in these countries. Analyzing the impact of Chinese FDI in Ghana and Nigeria has been the topic of some academic research. However, previous studies have focused on the individual relationships between these African countries and China (SWAC/OECD, 2011). With the rapid changes in the global investment environment, especially in light of the global recession, it is essential to identify the key determining factors of FDI inflows to Ghana and Nigeria, in order to analyze the impact of these FDIs in this region. Although economic growth has been specified as a developmental goal in this region, academic research exploring the nature of the economic relationship between China and Ghana / China and Nigeria suggests that the influx of FDI into these developing economies may have the effect of retarding the overall development in these countries, as it prioritizes the exploitation of natural resources over essential developmental goals (Oyeranti, et al., 2010).Aims and ObjectivesThis research has two main goal s. First is to assess the impacts of Chinese FDI in Ghana and Nigeria in order to conduct a cross-country analysis of their respective economic relationships. Second is to analyze the overall impact of Chinese FDI on the development of these countries. In order to realize the primary goals of this study, the following objectives have been identified: To establish a theoretical framework for analyzing the impacts of FDI in developing countries, specifically within the context of countries in the West African which have abundant natural resources To construct a theoretical framework for measuring the impacts of FDI in Ghana and Nigeria, taking into consideration the differences in economic development and investment climate. To determine the factors influencing the economic relationship between China and Ghana / China and Nigeria, and to analyze these in terms of the established framework. To compare and contrast the respective impacts of Chinese FDI on Ghana and Nigeria in order to draw conclusions regarding how to manage and improve their relationshipsResearch QuestionsA set of research questions has been formulated based on the main goals and objectives of the study. These questions help to guide the study by ensuring that the analysis stays focused on the primary research subject. Below are the research questions for this study : What are the determinants of FDI impacts in African countries and how are these measured What are the specific impacts of Chinese FDI in Ghana and Nigeria How do these impacts correlate with the determinants identified in question 1 To what extent are the impacts of Chinese FDI in Ghana and Nigeria comparable What cross-country recommendations can be made in order to ensure that developmental goals and positive determinants of FDI are achieved in both countriesBackground informationDue to rapid globalization and the growing interdependence among countries, FDI has been recognized as one of the most significant means of international capital transfers. Over the years, FDI has grown to be an essential component in the economic development of many nations (Benacek et. al., 2000). Morgan (2003) and Johnson (2005) have highlighted the beneficial impacts that FDI can provide to a host country. These include: (a) generating additional resources such as capital and technology, to help boost the level of domestic outputs and deliver better, more affordable goods and services; (b) outflow of human resources, management practices and technologies from foreign firms to domestic businesses , which enables the host country to improve their operations and competitiveness; and (c) increased involvement of the host country in transnational markets, such as foreign exchange market and international trade. Due to the economic growth and welfare that FDI brings to the host country, this investment is preferred by most developing countries because it offers a faster way to achieve a more advanced level of economic development. However, FDI presents a lot of risks for investors. Due to these risks, countries are compelled to offer tangible incentives, as well as to put supportive regulation and systems in place to draw investors. Unfortunately, most developing nations frequently neglect to build an incentive system for foreign financiers (Botric & Skuflic, 2005). Consequently, the bulk of FDI is offered to developed countries such as the US, Germany, and Belgium (UNCTAD, 2011a). Traditionally, investment relationships in Ghana and Nigeria are established with European and American investment partners, as these countries are the primary sources of FDI, trade, and financial and technical aid. These relationships involve a number of bilateral and regional agreements with Nigeria and Ghana. Despite the many years of economic relationships with these countries, there are still differing opinions as to the impact of these investments on the development of Ghana and Nigeria (Tsikata, et al., 2010). FDI in Africa has been increasing steadily since 2002 with approximately $53 billion worth of FDI in 2007, representing an increase from 2006 of 47.2%. This increase was the highest recorded level of FDI in Africa at the time. With the global recession, the percentage of global FDI into Africa has experienced a significant decline from 3.2% in 2006 to 2.9% in 2007. Since then, however, the African economy has proved resilient, growing to over $61.9 billion in 2008, and the rate of return on FDI in Africa since 2004 has grown to 12.1%. In addition, mergers and acquisitions in Africa have risen by approximately 157% to $2 billion in 2008 (Oyeranti, et al., 2010). Investment in Nigeria and Ghana by Chinese investors has grown substantially since 1971 as a result of the complementary nature of their economies. Chinese investment in Ghana has been growing consistently in the previous decade with significant increase seen from 2004 to 2005, representing $3.09 million and $17.87 million, respectively. Research indicates that the Chinese share, as a percentage of total investment by China in Ghana, implies that FDI is increasing (Frimprong, 2012). Investment by the Chinese in Nigeria reveals a similar situation, as Chinese FDI grew twice as much between 2003 and 2005, increasing from $3 billion to $6 billion. Ghana and Nigeria lack significant investments in infrastructure that is needed to support the development required to result in measurable economic growth. To this end, China has developed a successful and competent construction industry, coupled with the ability to provide Nigeria and Ghana with the requisite capital needed to drive this infrastructure development (Oyeranti, et al., 2010). In this way, the flow of investment into Ghana and Nigeria is complementary due to the nature and needs of the respective economies. However, the Chinese industrialization drive and the subsequent inflow of FDI into China’s economy has led to rapid growth in the manufacturing sector, which entails the use of oil and mineral inputs that are overwhelming China’s internal resource capabilities (Ibid). As a result, China is looking to developing nations such as Nigeria and Ghana to supplement their energy resource requirements to support their growing economy. Consequently, the relation ship between Chinese FDI inflows into Ghana and Nigeria are being described as exploitative and as having an upsetting effect on the Western development goals that have been set for the region (Tsikata, et al., 2010). This negative perception about China’s interest in Nigeria and Ghana are due to the fact that the oil and gas sector accounts for more than 75% of Chinese investments. This implies that China seeks to exploit Nigeria’s natural resources. This further suggests that Chinese FDI in Nigeria is a relationship prone to exploitation and is potentially damaging to the developmental goals of the region (Oyeranti, et al., 2010). Despite these negative views, Chinese FDI in Nigeria and Ghana has not been focused solely on the exploitation of natural resources. Chinese FDI has actually helped to achieve significant growth in the manufacturing and services industry in both countries (Frimpong, 2012). The investment climate in Africa has become significantly more attractive as a result of the considerable efforts to liberalize investment regulations and offer incentives for FDI. The result, however, has not been as positive as originally intended due to significant concerns over the economic and political stability of the region. LITERATURE REVIEWFDI definitionThe analysis of relevant literature has shown that there is not one universally recognized definition of FDI. Nevertheless, the various definitions of FDI do not differ considerably. FDI is commonly perceived as either a real phenomenon or a financial phenomenon (Moosa, 2002). Within the perspective of a financial phenomenon, FDI is defined as: A kind of transnational investment transfer; wherein FDI is the outcome of variations in interest rates between two economies, because the country with higher interest levels is more appealing for foreign businesses An external supply of funding for the national economy ? FDI shows the influxes of foreign investment into the nation within a certain timeframe, which is indicated in the balance of payments A means of reducing and eventually eradicating poverty through FDI-driven economic growth in developing countries, and in Africa, specifically in light of United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDG) (Asiedu, 2006) However, when FDI is considered exclusively in financial terms, there seems to be an underestimation of the degree to which FDI is related with a varied array of production elements. Among the most crucial non-financial inflows are managerial skills, expertise, and technology. This implies that although financial flows seem to a main component of FDI, it is not necessarily the leading element. Furthermore, according to Moosa (2002) a distinctive characteristic of FDI compared with other kinds of international investments is its function in directing management policies and decisions. As such, describing FDI as purely a financial phenomenon appears to undervalue this aspect. A more inclusive definition of FDI that is mostly acknowledged by other international organizations (e.g. IMF, Eurostat, UNCTAD) is proposed by OECD. According to the OECD (1999, p.7), FDI ’reflects the aim of obtaining a lasting interest by a resident entity of one economy (direct investor) in an enterprise that is resident of another economy (direct investment enterprise).’ The term ’lasting interest’ refers to the formation of a long-standing association concerning the investor and the direct investment establishment This also involves important impacts on the management of such enterprise. A direct investor is ’the owner of 10% or more of ordinary shares or voting stock‘(OECD, 1999, p.8). The IMF recommends applying this requirement of a minimum 10% ownership to differentiate direct investment vis-a-vis portfolio investment through shareholding. Based from this perspective, a direct investor can be any of the following entities: (a) individual, (b) group of associated individuals, (c) government, (d) incorporated or unincorporated company, private or public, and (e) group of associated companies, incorporated or unincorporated. The entity has a direct investment establishment situated in a country that is not where the direct investor resides (Duce, 2003). Direct investment enterprise can have any of the subsequent forms: Subsidiary ? a direct investor controls greater than 50% of the voting power allocated to shareholders. Controlling the shareholdings can be done either directly or indirectly, via a different subsidiary. The direct investor has the authority to secure or terminate members of the Supervisory Board or Management Board. Associate Company ? a direct investor owns between 10 to 50 % of the voting power allocated to shareholders. Likewise the control of shareholdings can be done either directly or indirectly. Branch ? a direct investor is also the owner of an unincorporated establishment (whole or joint ownership) in the host country. This can be in several forms, such as a joint venture, an unincorporated partnership, or a permanent office for the direct investor. This may also be in the form of fixed/immobile equipment, movable equipment, property, or constructions located in the host country (OECD, 1999). Choosing a specific kind of direct investment business also depends on different considerations, the most significant of which is the present law in the host country (Duce, 2003). In considering the impact of Chinese FDI in Ghana and Nigeria, it is useful to consider the form of investment that FDI takes, with regard to the respective economies. Based from preliminary research, it is clear that Chinese FDI in Nigeria is significantly higher than its FDI in Ghana, when compared to one another. Considering the high concentration of FDI in the oil and gas sector, it is possible that the economic relationship between Nigeria and Chinese may be contradictory to the developmental goals and overall well-being of the country. Whilst Chinese FDI in Ghana is seen across a variety of sectors such as aluminum, iron ore, manganese, alloy, timber, waste materials, cocoa beans, cotton linters, and frozen fish (Rahman, 2012). This indicates that the overall impacts of Chinese FDI in Ghana may be more attuned to developmental goals, compared to China’s relationship with Nigeria.FDI determinants – Theoretical ApproachAs FDI became a focal point in the current global economy, researchers have attempted to describe the conduct of multinational firms and FDI determinants through the proposal of different theories. Adam Smith (Concept of Absolute Advantages) and David Ricardo (Theory of Comparative Advantages) had originally discussed FDI as a feature of international trade. Smith and Ricardo proposed that countries should focus on producing goods where they can offer a cost advantage (i.e. absolute advantage for Smith; comparative advantage for Ricardo). The surplus of goods generated by a country is intended for export. Simultaneously, the country imports goods that it cannot produce domestically because it lacks cost advantages for their production (Sen, 2010). The theories of Smith and Ricardo are the foundations of current views on FDI. Therefore, these will be considered in the design of the theoretical framework. Heckscher and Olin linked international trade and with the benefits brought by the factors of production. Thus, a country must focus in producing final goods of which the raw materials are reasonably plentiful in the country. Conversely, the country is recommended to import the basic components of goods that are in limited supply. This theory regards FDI as a component of transnational capital movement. FDI flows are seen amongst economies and are described by various capital concentrations. Countries that are well-off in terms of capital transfer their production to countries that have abundant labor supply. This is characterized by more returns to capital and lesser returns to labor. This process continues till labor and capital are equalized in the countries involved (Benacek et al., 2000). While these theories were able to associate FDI with labor costs and higher rates of investment returns, these were unable to completely rationalize FDI phenomenon (Assuncao, 2010). As such, th ese will not be fully utilized in the creation of this study’s theoretical framework. Another FDI theory is given by Kindleberger (1969), who presumes that direct investment can be cultivated in situations where market shortcomings or government interferences exist. In this context, particular economies produce commodities in which they can demonstrate a comparative advantage; while other products are exported because the country cannot produce them efficiently. Thus, the relationship between FDI and trade can be either substitutable or complementary. Kindleberger’s (1969) theory is applicable to the context of Ghana and Nigeria because of its considerations of market imperfections and government interventions. These will be helpful in explaining some aspects of the theoretical framework. Obstacles to commerce may affect FDI in two contradictory ways. On one hand, high trade barriers tend to boost FDI because these result in high export costs. This contention stresses the location advantage aspect of FDI. In contrast, high trade barriers are a hindrance for the parent company, especially in situations with high levels of trade with associated firms. Other researchers have also discussed the relationship between FDI and trade openness (Balasubramanyam et al., 1996) and majority of studies find a positive association among these variables (Benacek, 2000). Dunning (1993) combined the components of Trade Theory and the Theory of the Firm. Based on the OLI model, Dunning (1993) classified FDI determinants into three groups. These are: (a) Ownership-specific advantages such as technology and know-how; (b) Location-specific advantages including market size, transport costs, etc.; and (c) Advantages that are particular to internationalization, wherein the firm supposes that selling of ownership advantages to third parties is not as lucrative as internally employing these advantages. Moreover, Dunning (1993) came up with the Investment Development Path based from the findings of his study. This framework identified five stages in the development of a country. These stages have a substantial effect on FDI inflows (Gorynia et al., 2005; Benacek et al., 2000). These stages of development will be one of the components in the theoretical framework; thus, this study is important to this research project. The institutional approach presents a different perspective on the subject. Root & Ahmed (1978) and Bond & Samuelson (1986) suggested that the environment, where the enterprise conducts its operations, is unpredictable and unsure. Thus, the firm’s decisions will be greatly affected by institutional forces (i.e. regulations and incentives). However, in actuality, government policy defines the options that are presented to a company and which influences the firm’s decisions regarding FDI, licensing, and exporting (Assuncao, 2010). The role of government in FDI is another aspect which will be explored in the theoretical framework. The institutional approach will be part of this analysis. Last but not least, it is beneficial to consider Ozawa’s (1992) study, which connects the patterns in developing countries with Porter’s theory of a country’s competitive advantages. According to Porter, there are four groups of attributes that can be applied to a country. These are: (a) factor conditions; (b) demand conditions; (c) firm strategy, structure and rivalry; and (d) related and supported enterprises. These have an influence on the nation’s competitiveness (Smith, 2012). Ozawa argues that the foreign investment received by developing countries, which are mainly allocated to labor-intensive sectors, results in a process of learning and technology purchase. It aids developing economies to raise their competitive advantages and thus, push the economy onward along the various stages of development ? moving from the fundamental factor-driven stage to the innovation-driven stage. This is described by an increasing external FDI (Ozawa, 1992). The discu ssion on competitive advantage is again a major component of the theoretical framework which will be the outcome of this research. As such, the study by Ozawa (1992) presents some arguments that are crucial to the discussion of this research.FDI determinants – ClassificationDunning (1998) identified four groups of FDI motives. The first two groups of motives are features of the initial stage of FDI, while other groups are related to sequential FDI (Gorynia et. al., 2005). Resource Seeking – the firm intends to obtain specific resources at less costs than in the local/national market Market Seeking – the firm intends to operate in a specific overseas market because of its size or anticipated growth. The firm builds a global strategy for the foreign market, or reduces the expenditures related to serving a certain market from a neighboring facility instead of from outside the country Efficiency Seeking – the firm intends to justify its production, distribution, and marketing (Gorynia et. al., 2005, p.65) Strategic Asset Seeking – the firm seeks to extend its strategic goals; for instance, supporting their competitiveness in international markets Clause (1999) and Calderon et al., (2002) categorized FDI determinants in two groups: (a) ‘Push factors’ or investor’s intentions to position capital/investment overseas: (b) ‘Pull factors’; or country-specific determinants, also referred to as location determinants. These factors influence the decision of the investor to find capital in a specific country. Additionally, pull factors are political, including growth estimates, or the country’s system of rules/regulations and rewards/incentives. The authors also highlighted other pull elements in the case of transitional economies. These include the process of privatization and the intensification effect, in which a direct investment results in other direct investments (Vita and Kyaw, 2008). Lastly, UNCTAD (2011a) segregated FDI determinants into three categories: (a) policy framework such as economic and political stability, competition policy, etc.; (b) business facilitations, including the costs of business operations, investment motivations, etc.; and (c) economic determinants such as market growth and infrastructure. Although these determinants help to ascertain the overall desirability of the country, the significance of specific groups differs depending on the sector and entry modes. The various FDI determinants will be explored as components of the theoretical framework. These will be investigated to find out which FDI determinants are applicable to the Ghanaian and Nigerian context.Investment Climate in Ghana and Nigeria – A Comparative AnalysisAttracting increasing amounts of FDI has been a significant priority of Ghana’s government when developing and reforming economic policy. The Ghana Investment Advisory Council (GIAC) was formed with the help of the World Bank and is comprised of local and multinational companies and institutional observers from around the world. The aim of the GIAC is to ensure the removal of any regulations, which may discourage FDI in the country. The GIAC, however, does not have regulatory power over the natural resources sector, but does regulate investment in all other sectors, such as banking and other financial institutions, telecommunications, energy and real estate (Tsikata, et al., 2010). The most beneficial eleme nt of the investment climate in Ghana is that there is no general economic or industrial strategy aimed at discriminating against foreign owned business or subsidiaries, but conversely there are incentives offered if the projects are deemed critical for national development. Prior to 1995, Nigeria was considered one of the most unsuitable countries in Western African for FDI due to a combination of considerable restrictions and unsuitable investment climate ? the result of social, economic, and political tensions that continue to plague the country. In 1995, however, Nigeria changed the investment climate substantially by opening the economy to FDI and reversing these severe restrictions. The Nigerian Investment Promotion Commission (NIPC) was created to manage the approval of business licenses and motivations to improve the investment climate. All restrictions on limits in foreign shareholding were also abolished in order to promote and facilitate FDI. According to current Nigerian investment law, 100 % foreign ownership of firms is allowed in every sector, with the exception of the petroleum sector. In this sector, investments are restricted to existing joint ventures or new production sharing contracts (Oyeranti, et al., 2010). This, however, is not n ecessarily a restrictive provision specific to Nigeria, since production sharing contracts have become a modern way of ensuring that ownership over natural resources is held by the host nation. It is evident, therefore, that both the Ghanaian and Nigerian investment climates are conducive and receptive to FDI from China. In determining the potential impacts of these investments on the economies of the country, it seems evident that there is a need and desire for large capital investments. At the same time, there is the need to stay in control of their natural resources, namely oil and minerals, which has resulted in the only restriction on FDI in the respective economies. The crucial difference between the two countries is the vast superiority of Nigeria with regards to their oil resources and the far-reaching effects that this has had on the country as a whole. This factor must, therefore, be critically considered to assess the impact of Chinese FDI in the country.Chinese Interest in West Africa – FDI AnalysisChina provides an ideal investment partner to African countries and is often more beneficial to the host nation that traditional investment partners for a numb er of reasons, including fewer demands on the host country in exchange for investment, fewer conditions for assistance, offered assistance at lower rates of repayment and lower interest rates, and offered training for technical and professional personnel in doing so (technology transfer) (Renard, 2011). Historically, the interest in Africa from the Chinese perspective has been primarily based on the need to supplement their own natural resources, with the rapid development of their manufacturing industry necessitating a significant amount of resources far outweighing any domestic production in China itself and with an abundance of these resources in West Africa, China sought to increase their investment in and trade participation within the region. In 1987, China exempted raw materials and other components due for re-export from custom duties which bolstered their international trade with African countries as being a significant source of these products and raw materials (Renard, 20 11). With the Chinese accession to the WTO, the protectionist barriers were further removed and this served to increase trade even further. Trade in components is therefore a significant part of Chinese interest in West Africa, as well as raw materials in exchange for consumer products with low capital intensity with a commitment to moving towards more technology-intensive products. In addition to the trade investment in West Africa, diplomacy in the region has focused on bilateral agreements with African governments. In 1994, the Exim Bank (China Export-Import Bank) was founded to encourage Chinese exports and FDI in Africa, with a specific focus on improving the infrastructure (Wang, 2007). On the other hand, China Development Bank (CDB), also established in 1994, opened the China-Africa Development Fund to assist Chinese FDI distribution into Africa, through the financing of Chinese firms looking to invest in the region. Finally, SINOSURE (China Export and Credit Insurance Corporation) provides these firms with insurance and protects against the risks associated with Chinese exports and foreign investment (Renard, 2011). These banks have a less risk-sensitive profile than most private banks in traditional Western investment partners, making them more willing to encourage to investment in often high-risk African countries, including Nigeria. The opportunity to invest in Africa by Chinese firms is as a result of the long-standing history of trade relations and supported by less risk-sensitive banks. These banks aim to encourage FDI in West African countries in order to sustain and potentially increase trade relations with the Chinese economy. With many of the major players in the Chinese economy being state-owned (as a result of the prevailing political regime), there is a significant interest in encouraging FDI with these West African countries due to China’s desire to sustain its high economic growth. This supports the main assumption of this research that China’s FDIs into Ghana and Nigeria are exploitative in nature. Because China’s desire to sustain its economic growth as the main driving factor for its FDI, there is a lot of suspicion that Chinese state-owned investors will not care about the long-term effects of FDI, especially as it focuses on extracting natural resources and raw materials fro m Ghana and Nigeria. METHODOLOGYResearch PhilosophyThis study applies the positivist philosophy, based on the presumption that experiment and observation are highly significant in perceiving human behavior. According to this philosophy, the world can be understood in a rational way. This approach focuses on analyzing facts and seeks to understand connections; reduces experience to simple components; and tests formulated hypotheses. It usually produces qualitative data, which seeks to be unbiased and precise (Saunders et. al., 2009).Research ApproachThis study is empirical and it acknowledges the significance of gathering and utilizing data, to achieve precise and clear conclusions. Inductive and deductive research approaches will be employed in the study. The deductive approach is described as highly structured. Theories of FDI motivations are first presented, since they are especially relevant to the Chinese FDI climate. Next, the relevance of these theories to both Ghana and Nigeria is discussed through the analysis of empirical data. An inductive approach is observed throughout the gathering and examination of empirical data from trustworthy sources. From this perspective, the researcher analyses the data obtained by others, which has been integrated with the research procedures. Given the research objectives, this study has an explanatory quality . Explanatory research aims to explain if there is an association among two or more variables of a specific incident or phenomenon. The aim of this study is to ascertain whether there is an association between FDI inflows from China to Ghana and Nigeria using a framework for the measurement of these impacts based on economic, political or social factors which may be influenced by foreign investments.Data Collection ProcessPrimary and secondary data will be gathered to analyze the possible impacts of FDI inflows from China. Selected economic indicators will also be analyzed using multiple regression analysis. This research will examine the following economic indicators: GDP growth rates; GDP per capita; inflation rates; employment rates; unit labor costs; trade balances (represented as a percentage of GDP); foreign exchange rates; Corporate Income Tax Rates; percentage of people with higher education; developmental goals identified by the host country and other international bodies, and public spending on higher education. The data that will be used in this research will be taken from several different secondary research sites. Data sources are national statistics, scholarly publications, UNDP, IMF and the World Bank, as well as any other directed research that is seeking to understand the relationship between Chinese FDI and its impacts in Ghana and Nigeria countries.Limitations of ResearchThe current research is limited to the extent that Ghana and Nigeria are compatible in conducting the comparative analysis. The main concern is that the vast difference in the oil dependency of these two countries will lead to a number of conclusions, which are not compatible with one another, due to the fact that the Nigerian economy revolves around oil production. It is reasonable, therefore, to think that the application of this theory to Ghana may lead to conclusions or recommendations for improvement, which cannot be applied to the Nigerian context due to its resource dependency and the influence of the social, political and economic climate. In order to mitigate this limitation, the researcher aims to look specifically at the dependence on natural resources (mineral and oil) in the Ghanaian economy in order to ensure that this factor is given sufficient consideration in reaching the conclusions of this theoretical research.Secondary PublicationsPublished secondary resources will also be utilized in this study. These sources discussed FDI determinants from a general perspective and presented global outflows of FDI from China. These also analyzed the general determinants of FDI impacts in Africa as a developing region, with a specific focus on Ghana and Nigeria, and compared these impacts against one another to determine recommendations for the improvement or mitigation of FDI impacts. The application of secondary data in addressing the objectives of this research will add to the overall clarity of the research. Secondary data will be gathered by studying documents from various sources, su ch as international organizations and statistics offices. Other materials are peer-reviewed articles, research papers, books, and other scholarly publications. These will aid in recognizing and incorporating the most relevant literature within the context of the main research questions.Limitations of Secondary SourcesThere are some limitations in using secondary sources. One limitation is that it involves the possibility of incurring knowledge gaps. This refers to the occasions when researchers are unable to find the specific data they are looking for. Moreover, data might be outdated or is not relevant to the research problem. Furthermore, the researcher might find contradictory points of view in the secondary data, which will result in confusion and ambiguities. To lessen these kinds of risks, the researcher will seek the advice and guidance of academic staff specializing in this research subject regarding suggestions on literature. The researcher will also come up with a comprehensive list of international databases of FDI to find the most current data.Data AnalysisThe data analyses that will be applied in this research are comprised of four important steps. Data will be arranged in a rational way. The arrangement of primary and secondary data is based on the selection process (based on the researcher’s judgment). Data will be sorted into three categories. The categories are as follows: (a) Theoretical application of FDI in a Chinese context; (b) Ghanaian and Nigerian investment climate and context; (c) the relationship between Chinese FDI and the Ghanaian and Nigerian political, social, and economic factors. Data will then be analyzed using a number of qualitative research techniques. Results will be organized in terms of theoretical FDI themes identified in the initial research. DISSERTATION PLAN Below is the Gantt chart for the dissertation. This outlines the main activities that will be conducted for this research. Project TasksStartDuration Task 1: Writing the research proposal05 Task 2: Writing the project plan55 Task 3: Conducting the literature review1014 Task 4: Gathering of secondary data247 Task 5: Creation of theoretical framework3120 Task 6: Analysis of the data5114 Task 7: Writing the final research report6514 Note: Start – Represents the number of days from the start date of the research project Duration – The number of days required to complete the task REFERENCES Asiedu, S. (2006) Foreign Direct Investment in Africa: The Role of Natural Resources, Market Size, Government Policy, Institutions and Political Instability. United Nations University Publication [online] Available on: http://www.people.ku.edu/~jbrown/virus.html [Accessed 1 April 2013] Assuncao, S., Forte, R. and Teixeira, A. (2011) Location determinants of FDI: a literature review. Porto: FEP. Benacek, V., Gronicki M., Holland, D. and Sass, M. (2000) The Determinants and Impact of Foreign Direct Investments in Central and Eastern Europe: A Comparison Survey and Econometric Evidence. Journal of United Nations. 9(3). Pp. 163-212. Bevan, A. and Estrin S. (2004). The Determinants of Foreign Direct Investments into European Transition Economies. Journal of Comparative Studies.32. Pp.775-787. Botric, V. and Skuflic, L. (2005) Main determinants of Foreign Direct Investments in the South East European Countries. Zagreb: Institute of Economic. Calderon, C.L. and Serven, L. (2002) Greenfield FDI vs. Mergers and Acquisitions. Does the distinction matterChile: Central Bank of Chile. Duce, M. (2003) Definition of Foreign Direct Investment: a methodological note. Madrid: Banco de Espana. Dunning, J.H. (1993) Multinational Enterprise and the Global Economy. Essex: Addison-Wesley Publication Company. Frimprong, S. (2012) Research on Relationship between China and Ghana: Trade and Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development, 3(7), pp. 51 – 61 Gorynia, M., Nowak J. and Wolniak R. (2005) Motives and Modes of FDI, Firm Characteristics and Performance: Case Study of Foreign Subsidiaries in Poland. Journal of Transitional Management.10 (3). Pp.55-87. Johnson, A. (2005) The effects of FDI inflows on host country economic growth. Jonkoping: Jonkoping International Business School. Moosa, I. (2002) Foreign Direct Investment: Theory, Evidence and Practice. NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Morgan, T. (2005) How does FDI affect host country developmentUsing industry case studies to make reliable generalizations. [In:] Morgan T., Graham, E. and Blomstrom, M., Does Foreign Direct Investment promotes developmentWashington: Institute for International Economics. OECD (1999) OECD benchmark definition of Foreign Direct Investment.3rd edition. Paris: OECD. Oyeranti, O., Babatunde, A., Ogunkola, E. & Bankole, A. (2010) Chinese-Africa Investment Relations: Case Study of Nigeria. Nairobi: African Economic Research Consortium Ozawa, T. (1992) Foreign Direct Investment and Economic Development. Transnational corporations. 1(1). Pp. 27-54. Rahman, M. (2012) Political Economy of China’s Foreign Direct Investment in Ghana. GhanaWeb [online] Available on: http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID=236093 [Accessed 1 April 2013] Renard, M. (2011) China’s Trade and FDI in Africa. African Development Bank, Working Paper Series, no. 126. Belvedere: African Development Bank Saunders, M., Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. (2009), Research methods for business students. 5th Ed. Harlow: FT Prentice-Hall. Sen, S. (2010) International Trade Theory and Policy: A review of the literature. NY: Levy Economic Institute. Smit, A.J. (2010) The Competitive Advantages of Nations: Is Porter’s Diamond Framework a New Theory That Explains The International Competitiveness of CountriesSouthern African Business Review.14. Pp.105-130. Tsikata, D., Fenny, A. & Aryeetey, E. (2010) Impact of China-Africa Investment Relations: An In-depth Analysis of the Case of Ghana. Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research University of Ghana: African Research Consortium UNCTAD (2011a) World Investment Report 2011.Non-equity modes of international production and development. NY: United Nations. UNCTAD (2011b) World Investment Prospect Survey2011-2013.NY: United Nations. Vita, G. and Kyaw, K. (2008) Determinants of FDI and Portfolio Flows to Developing Countries. A panel co-integration analysis. European Journal of Economics, Finance and Administrative Sciences, 13.Pp. 161-168. Wang, J. (2007) What Drives China Growing Role in Africa. IMF Working Paper, WP/07/211. International Monetary Fund, African Department.

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Intelligence Led Policing Models

Intelligence Led Policing Models The objective of this syndicate research work is to find out that. Has police ordinance 2002 fulfilled its objectives? What are the missing and gaps in its conceptual framework and implementation process? Why community policing system has been left out of the ordinance? And will it contribute negatively or positively?This is basically aimed at analyzing the success or failure if the ordinance with special reference to its stated objectives.Further,this research work digs out the gaps between the real concept of the ordinance and its implementation?Besides,this study also finds out that for what reasons,one of the important policing systems-community policing system-has not been focused upon in the ordinance?More importantly and lastly,this research work analysis whether the ordinance has been story of success or failure by ignoring the essential element of community policing system in the police ordinance 2002? POLICING MODELS Intelligence-led policing (ILP) is a policing model that has emerged in recent years which is built around risk assessment and risk management. Although there is no universally accepted understanding of what intelligence-led policing entails the leading definition is that ILP is a strategic, future-oriented and targeted approach to crime control, focusing upon the identification, analysis and management of persisting and developing problems or risks. In simpler terms, it is a model of policing in which intelligence serves as a guide to operations, rather than the reverse. Calls for intelligence-led policing originated in the 1990s, both in Britain and in the United States. In the U.S. Mark Rieblings 1994 book Wedge The Secret War between the FBI and CIA spotlighted the conflict between law enforcement and intelligence, and urged cops to become more like spies. Intelligence-led policing gained considerable momentum globally following the September 11 terrorist attacks on the United States. It is now advocated by the leading police associations in North America and the UK. Although claimed as a policing framework that builds on earlier paradigms, including community policing, problem-oriented policing, and continuous improvement or partnership models of policing, it originated as a rejection of the reactive, crime focus of community policing with calls for police to spend more time employing informants and surveillance to combat recidivist offenders. Recently, intelligence-led policing has undergone a revisionist expansion to allow incorporation of reassurance and neighbourhood policing. United Kingdom Intelligence-led policing in the UK has been applied as a specialized police practice involving the identification and targeting of high-rate, chronic offenders and devising strategic interventions based on that intelligence.ILP originated as a problem-oriented strategy in the Kent and Northumbria Constabularies in combating motor vehicle theft and other property crime. Kent prioritized its calls for service, placing less priority on minor service calls and referring them to other agencies, which in turn provided police with more time to focus on the property crimes. Rather than reactively responding to individual incidents, a systematic analysis was conducted of offenses that identified a pattern showing that a small number of offenders were responsible for a disproportionately large number of motor vehicle thefts in the area. Also identified were repeat victims and problem areas. Using this knowledge to formulate a response, police could soon boast a significant drop in the automobile theft rate. Since 2000, ILP has been enshrined in Britain as the philosophy underpinning the National Intelligence Model. United States The post-9/11 environment in the US, the era of Homeland Security for American policing,[8] has increased demands for law enforcement to build global partnerships and to work more closely with local agencies to expand the capacity of the state to fight both crime and terrorism. Given the belief that 9/11 and other terrorist attacks could have been prevented if not for intelligence failures, a key difference with intelligence-led policing from earlier strategies is that intelligence is no longer considered a specialized function for crime analysts or intelligence units. Investigations following bombings of the rail systems in Madrid and London and the arrest of suspected terrorists in Canada, Britain, and Florida suggested that intelligence culled from a variety of sources and through strengthened inter-agency cooperation may be the key to identifying suspects and successfully intervening to prevent attacks. On March 16, 2005, Department of Homeland Security Secretary Michael Chertoff outlined a risk-based approach to homeland security threats, vulnerabilities, and consequences when he said, Risk management must guide our decision-making as we examine how we can best organize to prevent, respond, and recover from an attack . . . . Our strategy is, in essence, to manage risk in terms of these three variables threat, vulnerability, consequence. We seek to prioritize according to these variables, to fashion a series of preventive and protective steps that increase security at multiple levels. In 2006 Mark Riebling of the Center for Policing Terrorism published a doctrine on Intelligence-Led Policing. Rieblings model leverages both Israeli counter-terrorist tactics, and the NYPDs Broken Windows policing theories. Among the Broken-Windows mechanisms, Rieblings doctrine blends problem solving, environmental design, community policing, and public-private partnerships. Analyzing the operations of the Israeli National Police in Tel Aviv, Riebling notes approvingly that investigation of the incident, even a traffic accident, is secondary to the number one goal-which is gathering intelligence. For instance, when they raided a bordello, where the patrons were primarily Arabs from different parts of the region, Israeli police were less concerned about the criminal activity, than with preparing intelligence reports on who these people were, and how they got into Israel. Issues Intelligence-led policing is still in its early stages and therefore lacks a universal conceptual framework that can be applied to disparate contexts as the new policing paradigm. Implementation can also be difficult, because it requires police managers to have faith in the intelligence process and in the judgments and recommendations of their intelligence staff. Some have also questioned whether the foundational ingredient intelligence has been properly considered, pointing out there is already information overload that police and security professionals have to contend with from the huge databanks that have been built up in the intelligence process, and that increasing raw data is not the same as generating knowledge or actionable intelligence. Finally, intelligence-led policing is part of the larger trend of blurring the distinction between national security and domestic policing, or the states military and police functions, and risks the same perils that have tarnished policing in the past, such as political interference, violating civil liberties, and a greater potential for the abuse of police power with the increased secrecy that intelligence work entails. The Community Policing Organizational Change Ideally, community policing should be adopted organization-wide and be reflected through department participation at all levels as well as through the organizations mission, goals, objectives, performance evaluations, hiring and promotion practices, training, and all other systems that define organizational culture and activities. One of the most important specific aspects of organizational change relevant to community policing is a flattened organizational structure. Community policing departments are often less hierarchical, supporting managements dispersion of decision-making authority to the lowest organizational level and holding those individuals accountable for the outcomes. A second important element of organizational change is fixed geographic responsibility. Officers or deputies are assigned to fixed geographic areas for extended periods, based on social and cultural considerations and on the assumption that this fosters better communication with residents; increases the po lice officers ability to understand, prevent, and respond to community problems; and enhances accountability to the citizens in that area. Problem Solving Community policing departments also actively address the underlying conditions that give rise to or facilitate crime or disorder in an effort to prevent future problems by identifying and analyzing problems and by developing tailored strategies that may include traditional and nontraditional responses that focus on deterring offenders, protecting likely victims, and making locations less conducive to crime and disorder. Departments should use a wide array of relevant traditional and nontraditional data sources to better understand and evaluate the nature of problems and work in conjunction with the community and other organizations to develop effective long-term solutions. Problem solving often manifests itself in the scanning, analysis, response and assessment problem-solving model. Departments first identify relevant or perceived crime problems (scanning), determine the nature and underlying conditions that give rise to those problems (analysis), craft and implement interventions t hat are linked to that analysis (response), and evaluate its effectiveness (assessment). The process is understood as continually involving feedback among the components. For instance, through in-depth analysis, agencies may come to define problems differently, effectively returning to the scanning phase. Likewise, an assessment may determine that a response was ineffective and that the problem requires additional analysis. External Partnerships Under a community policing philosophy, departments partner with other government, social service, and community agencies in attempts to identify and address persistent problems in the community. They form external partnerships in recognition of other agencies unique strengths, tools, and expertise that can be leveraged when addressing community problems. The police are only one of a host of local government agencies responsible for responding to community problems. Under community policing, coordination with other government agencies in developing comprehensive and effective solutions is essential. In addition, the police are encouraged to develop working partnerships with civic and community groups to accurately survey community needs and priorities and to use the public as a resource in problem solving and in developing and implementing interventions. Community Policing and Terrorism Prevention and Response Organizational Change A flat organizational structure may ensure more effective terrorist prevention and response. It has been demonstrated that local law enforcement officers are likely to come into contact with those who may be directly or indirectly involved in terrorist activities and most certainly will be among the first responders to any future terrorist attack. Empowering officers at lower levels with decision-making authority and familiarizing them with making (and taking responsibility for) important decisions could be of value in any crisis. In a terrorist event, there may be little time for decisions to move up the chain of command. Officers who are accustomed to making decisions and retaining authority may be better prepared to respond quickly and decisively to any event. In addition, in terms of prevention, developing a flat organizational structure can help lower-level officers feel free to pursue leads or suspected terrorist activity. In addition, having fixed geographic responsibility may assist officers in identifying possible terrorist threats. Officers who work in a community or neighborhood for an extended time can develop specific intelligence concerning resident and community activities. This street-level knowledge is a vital part of counter-intelligence efforts. Problem Solving Problem-solving models are well suited to preventing and responding to terrorist activity. Departments can use many existing data sources ahead of time to develop detailed risk management and crisis plans. Identifying potential terrorist targets in local jurisdictions is an important first step. Police can determine what in their jurisdictions (dams, electric grids, chemical warehouses, large-scale public gatherings) are potential terrorist targets. Community policing encourages agencies to conduct complex analyses of the possible threats and of their relative likelihood of occurring. Finally, agencies in conjunction with other government, social, and community entities can develop detailed crisis prevention and response plans. Finally, the community policing model encourages continual refinement of these plans to suit changing conditions and threat levels. External Partnerships The threat of terrorism provides a unique opportunity to create partnerships with citizens, other government organizations, and other law enforcement agencies. Prior apathy toward these partnerships that may have existed is often reduced by the presence of terrorist targets and threats. Recent terrorist events and associated concerns may have created a sense of uneasiness and urgency in many communities. The specter of additional terrorist activity has created an opportunity to galvanize local police to work with their communities, other law enforcement agencies, and local, state, and federal entities. The community policing model encourages the development of such ongoing and effective partnerships, which can be invaluable in preventing terrorist activity because of increased opportunities for intelligence gathering and sharing. They can also be central to developing coordinated responses to any actual terrorist events. Community policing encourages agencies to establish and expand upon existing partnerships with a goal of developing model crisis plans and processes to deal with the aftermath of terrorist incidents. These plans and processes would consider the needs and concerns of all community stakeholders. Law enforcement and local government can come together with community partners to develop a plan on how to prepare for such a crisis, what to do in the event of such a crisis, and how to cope with its aftermath. Community Policing and Fear of Terrorism By definition, the primary goal of terrorism is to create fear and an atmosphere of uncertainty. This fear can greatly affect the quality of life of many individuals, extending far beyond those who are directly affected by a terrorist event. In the United States the police have increasingly been asked to address the fear of crime generally. The expansion of their role to include quality of life and partnerships with citizens, as emphasized by the community policing philosophy, has increasingly brought fear of crime under the purview of police professionals. As A. Steven Dietz stated in Evaluating Community Policing, Reduction of fear of crime has been associated with community policing programs since their inception. It is clear that reducing fear of crime has become an essential element and an often explicitly articulated goal of community policing. Thus, community policing finds itself well positioned to deal with issues of fear that can arise as a direct result of terrorist activi ty. In addition, dealing directly with citizen fear of crime is important, as unchecked fear of terrorism (or feelings of revenge) can manifest itself in hate crimes and illegal bigotry targeted particularly at people who are Muslim and of Middle Eastern descent. These are important social problems that law enforcement should be prepared to respond to and prevent. Organizational Change Adoption of the community policing philosophy partly involves reengineering department processes and resources away from randomness and reactivity and toward information- and service-driven community-based approaches. Police officers are often assigned to specific geographic areas to foster communication with residents and are accountable to those residents and their superiors for the safety and well-being of that area. Other aspects of the agency are realigned to support the most fundamental focus of all activities, the beat. As a result of this emphasis, police officers should be more attuned to rising levels of community concern and fear and, by virtue of the relationships they have established within the community, be in a position to respond effectively to those needs and concerns. Community policing has been found to engender trust and increased satisfaction among residents for the police, which in periods of heightened unrest can be parlayed into dealing more effectively with community fear that can be based on both rational and irrational concerns. Problem Solving Community policing encourages a deeper understanding of the fear that may result from terrorist events. The first step is to determine whether fear is a problem in the community and to determine the extent of the problem. Police can conduct citizen interviews, surveys, and face-to-face interactions to determine levels of citizen fear. Then they can analyze the underlying conditions that give rise to or encourage fear. Perhaps it is a result of a specific terrorist-related fear such as living near what is perceived to be a potential terrorist target, or the fear may involve fear for loved ones who reside in high-threat areas. Finally, perhaps the fear is a more general fear of terrorism. In any event, law enforcement should work to understand the extent and nature of fear in their community if they want to develop effective responses. Law enforcement should then work in partnership with other community groups to develop responses aimed at decreasing levels of fear if they are negatively affecting quality of life and are determined to be highly exaggerated. Community policing efforts to deal with citizen fear of crime have included foot and vehicle patrols in high-crime neighborhoods, as well as community meetings, citizen patrols, neighborhood cleanup programs, opening neighborhood substations, and citizen awareness campaigns. Clearly, citizen fear of terrorist events is somewhat different than fear of crime generally. However, some of the same techniques may also be useful for reducing this type of fear. For example, citizen awareness campaigns can inform citizens about what the local police and city government are doing to prevent and prepare for possible terrorist events. Crisis response plans can be discussed in addition to general prevention activities. Citizens can be informed about what they themselves can do-such as preparing emergency survival kits for their own homes-to prepare for possible terrorist events and can be informed of evacuation routes to use in the event of a large-scale disaster. Finally, law enforcement agencies should assess the effectiveness of any fear-reduction efforts and modify their responses accordingly. External Partnerships The emphasis on building strong community partnerships encouraged by a community policing philosophy may also help reduce citizen fear of terrorist events. These partnerships may be able to directly reduce fear by increasing citizen feelings of efficacy, increasing the bond among neighbors themselves, and involving citizens in prevention and preparedness activities. Encouraging citizen involvement in neighborhood watch, youth education, and cleanup programs can increase social cohesion among citizens and has been found to result in decreased fear of crime. It is likely that these increasing feelings of efficacy in response to terrorist events may have similar effects. Citizens can be involved to differing degrees in prevention and preparedness discussions. Traditional Policing Historically, local law enforcement in the 1930s and 1940s was characterized by the beat cop, who knew every resident and business owner in an assigned area. Likewise, this officer became aware almost immediately when a crime occurred and generally found out quickly from members of the community who committed it. This timely apportionment of justice helped to create a strong bond between members of the community and the officers who patrolled their districts. However, this policing model harbored significant drawbacks. Officers often gained appointments through corrupt political deals, were poorly trained, and rarely displayed a professional appearance or demeanor. PROFESSIONAL POLICING MODEL As a result, the 1960s and 1970s saw the dawn of the professional policing model. These new officers used the most up-to-date technologysuch as high-speed cruisers, forensic laboratories, mobile radios, and 911 emergency systemsto serve the sprawling suburban environment that came to characterize much of the American landscape. Considering the vast areas covered by a limited number of officers, response times were exceptionally quick. Such areas as recruiting practices, training, and professionalism were vastly improved. But the professional policing model possessed its own inherent shortcomings. Officers became less a part of the communities they served. In fact, they were intentionally placed outside of the community as a reaction to the potential for corruption that existed in prior policing models. And, even though response times were exceptional, calls for police service still brought officers to the scene after a crime had been committed. This incident-oriented policing model placed an impressive array of resources at officers disposal to locate offenders, but made little attempt to reduce actual crime numbers. COMMUNITY-ORIENTED POLICING MODEL Community-oriented policing combines the familiarity, trust, and sense of ownership characterized by the beat cop with the professionalism and expertise of the professional policing model. Officers working in this mode conduct their patrols from a problem-oriented, rather than incident-oriented, perspective. Accordingly, the focus becomes preventiverather than reactivepolice work. Officers involved in community-oriented policing have access to residents on a personal level, which helps to build a better relationship between the community and the police department. Residents see the police as more than just anonymous blue suits driving down the street in patrol cars. The community is more involved with the officers, and in turn, becomes the eyes and ears of the department in the neighborhood.